Categories for marine protection
Australian IUCN Reserve Management Principles for Commonwealth Marine Protected Areas
The text in dark brown comes from the IUCN publication
Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories (IUCN, 1994)
The text in blue are our comments.


In 1994 The World Conservation Union (IUCN)published the Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories.  The IUCN identified seven international categories which form the basis for the Australian IUCN Reserve Management Principles. All seven categories are important. The number assigned to a category does not reflect its importance: all categories are needed for conservation and sustainable development. The categories do represent varying degrees of human intervention.

 
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Protected areas are established to meet objectives consistent with national and local goals and needs, such as those established by Australia’s Oceans Policy. Once these objectives are identified for a particular marine protected area (MPA),an IUCN category is assigned. The assigned category is that one which most closely aligns with the objectives of the MPA. Activities considered appropriate in each reserve must be consistent with the Australian IUCN Reserve Management Principles and are decided in a case by case assessment, based on all the information available for a specific reserve and in a way that provides stakeholders with opportunities to be involved in these decisions in an open and transparent way.
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 provides that:

This booklet provides the IUCN definition of each protected area management category and the Australian IUCN Reserve Management Principles for each category as set out in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Regulations.
IUCN definition of a Marine Protected Area (Kelleher & Kenchington, 1992):
Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment.
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IUCN ia EPBC 1. Strict Nature Reserve
IUCN 1994 description Category ia: Strict Nature Reserve; Protected Area managed mainly for science. Area of land and/or sea possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems, geological or physiological features and/or species, available primarily for scientific research and/or environmental monitoring. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000) Guidance for selection Organisational responsibility
Ownerhsip and control should be by the national or other level of government acting through a professionally qualified agency, or by a private foundation, university or institution which has an established research or conservation function, or by owners working in cooperation with any of the foregoing government or private institutuions. Adequate safeguards and controls relating to long-term protection should be secured before designation. International agreements over areas subject to disputed national sovereignty can provide esceptions (e.g. Antarctica).

IUCN ib EPBC 2. Wilderness Area
IUCN 1994 description Category ib: Wilderness Area; Protected Area managed mainly for wilderness protection. Large area of unmodified or slightly modified land and/or sea, retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

Guidance for selection Organisational responsibility: as for subcategory ia above.
 

IUCN ii EPBC 3. National Park
IUCN 1994 description: Category ii: National Park; Protected Area managed mainly for ecosystem conservation and recreation. Natural area of land and/or sea, designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for this and future generations, (b) exclude exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designation of the area, and (c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)


Guidance for selection

Organisational responsibility:
Ownership and management shoud normally be by the highest competent authority of the nation having jurisdiction over it. However, they may also be vested in another level of government, council of indigenous people, foundation or other legally established body which has dedicated the area to long-term conservation.

IUCN iii EPBC 4. Natural Monument
IUCN 1994 description: Category iii :Natural Monument; Protected Area managed for conservation of specific natural features. Area containing one or more specific natural or natural/cultural feature which is of outstanding value because of its inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

Guidance for selection Organisational responsibility
Ownership and management should be by the national government or with appropriate safeguards and controls, by another level of government, council of indigenous people, non-profit trust, corporation or, exceptionally, by a private body, provided the long-term protection of the inherent character of the area is assured before its designation.
 

IUCN iv EPBC 5. Habitat/Species Management Area /Nature Conseration Reserve/ Managed Nature Reserve/ Wildlife Sanctuary
IUCN 1994 description: Category iv :Habitat/Species Management Area; Protected Area managed mainly for conservation  through management intervention. Area of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for management purposes so as to ensure the maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of specific species. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

Guidance for selection Organisational responsibility
Ownersip and management should be by the national government or, with appropriate safeguards and controls, by another level of government, non-profit trust, corporation, private group or individual.
 

IUCN v EPBC 6. Protected Landscape/Seascape
IUCN 1994 description: Category v :Protected Landscape/Seascape:Protected Areas managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. Area of land,with coast and seas as appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant aesthetic, cultural and/or ecological value, and often with high biological diversity. Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance and evolution of such an area. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

Guidance for selection Organisational responsibilities
The area may be owned by a public authority, but is more likely to comprise a mosaic of private and public ownerships operating a variety of management regimes. These regimes should be subject to a degree of planning or other control and supported, where appropriate, by public funding and other incentives, to ensure that the quality of the landscape/seascape and the relevant customs and beliefs are maintained in the long term.
 

IUCN vi EPBC 7. Managed Resource Protected Area
IUCN 1994 description: Category vi :Managed Resource Protected Areas; Protected Area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Area containing predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to ensure long term protection and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at the same time a sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet community needs. Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000)

Guidance for selection Organisational responsibilities
Management should be undertaken by public bodies with an unambiguous remit for conservation, and carried out in partnership with the local community; or management may be provided through local custom supported and advised by governmental or non-governmental agencies. Ownership may be by the national or other level of government, the community, private individual, or a combination of these.

In addition,under Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations, the general administrative principles enshrine the following principles in relation to all Commonwealth reserves:

  1. Community participation
  2. Effective and adaptive management
  3. Precautionary principle
  4. Minimum impact
  5. Ecologically sustainable use
  6. Transparency of decision-making
  7. Joint management


further information:
IUCN 1994 Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories, Gland,Switzerland
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000

Environment Australia web address: www.ea.gov.au/coasts/mpa/index.html
Environment Australia Community Information Unit: Free call 1800 803 772

ISBN 0642548536 Information contained in this booklet may be copied or reproduced for study, research, information or educational purposes, subject to inclusion of an acknowledgment of the source.



Interpretation
The above mentioned categories, intentions and management objectives look good on paper, but how do these translate to the practical situation? The sea has been swept into these categories, even though land and sea cannot be compared. It is an  uncomfortable fit as the table below attempts to place New Zealand's conservation categories within those of the IUCN. Note that New Zealand's environmental and conservation legislation (Biodiversity Strategy + Marine Reserves Act) is not in accordance with this.
 
Overview of IUCN categories on land and in the sea, for New Zealand
Category Name Land [1] Sea [1] Intention/ management objectives
ia (1A) Strict nature reserve island park without exotic pests non-degrading no-take marine reserve around remote islands, no fishing Outstanding large areas for research, monitoring, education. Restricted access. Protect habitats, ecosystems, species, features. Free from intervention. Quality should not degrade.
ib (1B) Wilderness area large national park with exotic predators and grazers.
Fishing & hunting allowed
large non-degrading coastal no-take marine reserve combined with take-some boundary zones, small recreational no-take marine reserve for fish watching, indigenous fishing Wide wilderness protection, slight habitation, undisturbed by human action over a long period of time. Appreciation, education, recreation, research, indigenous use. Passive management. Quality should not degrade.
ii (2) National park national park with exotic pests, fishing & hunting allowed locally managed, mataitai, trawler/ setnet restrictions, local bag limits. Ecosystem conservation + recreation. Protect ecosystems. Education, research, recreation, appreciation. Subsistence use & wise use.
iii (3) Natural monument natural/ heritage monument/ park (few places) shipwrecks, locally managed, taiapure, bag limits, some restrictions Outstanding, rare, aesthetic, cultural value. Education, research, appreciation, inspiration, traditional/ subsistence use.
iv (4) Managed nature reserve zoo, botannic garden, wildlife park (does not apply) marine mammal protected area, normal exploitation, fisheries regulations Maintenance of habitats & collections of species & physical features. Education. Traditional use.
v (5) Protected
landscape & 
seascape
recreation/ scenic/ road reserve marine farming restrictions, normal exploitation, Protect land/seascape for public enjoyment. Allow activities & lifestyles and use of natural products & services. Benefits to local communities.
vi (6) Managed resource native/ exotic forestry, environmentally friendly urban development, traditional land use all of the sea within the EEZ protected by QMS Protect biodiversity, sustainable use, regional development, use of  products & services, recreation & tourism, sustainable development
[1] Our interpretation regarding the situation in New Zealand

Note how the effort to place the marine environment into land-based categories, fits uncomfortably. This process has not been sufficiently thought through, apparently sprouting from the brains of people who have little knowledge or experience with the sea. The sea is a very different environment, having suffered little modification by people. It does not have burnt forests, ploughed and fertilised lands, roads and houses. The number of people found at any one time on the water is always small, their fishing methods leaving few traces. As a consequence, the marine ecosystems are much nearer to pristine condition, such that traditional fisheries conservation methods are more effective than advanced conservation measures on land.

New Zealand's Quota Management System (QMS) protects the sea from overfishing. It aims to conserve viable populations of all species. In this respect all of our ocean and seas conform to IUCN category 6.

Although the land suffers from erosion and loss of fertility, it is not mentioned in the IUCN categories. The sea is in a much more sorry state because it suffers from land-based pollution (mainly from erosion), which has no reciprocal on land. In recent times this threat has been accelerating, threatening all ecosystems, habitats and species. With respect to this large threat, the IUCN categorisation does not seem to make sense in coastal seas, particularly close to large rivers and populations.
 


MPA categories proposed for California
http://www.americanoceans.org/mpa/def.htm

In California an Interagency Marine Managed Areas Workgroup has developed a scheme for designating marine managed areas in state waters. In 1997 the California Resources Agency found that the existing system of reserve designations, which had developed in a haphazard way over many years, was overly complex and should be simplified. They studied the problem and proposed six categories:



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